A method used by backbench MPs to introduce a private member’s bill. The sponsoring MP is given 10 minutes to make a speech outlining the proposed bill’s purpose, potentially followed by a 10-minute opposition speech. If the House gives permission, the bill formally receives its first reading.

A committee of all backbench Conservative MPs, led by an 18-member executive, that oversees the rules for leadership contests and votes of confidence in the party leader. A vote of confidence is triggered if a threshold of MPs (currently one-third) submit letters to the committee chairman.

A prominent left-wing, fundamentalist faction within the Scottish National Party (SNP) formed in 1979 that called for a socialist and republican Scotland while embracing direct action tactics. The traditional leadership briefly expelled the group in 1982, though leading members, including Alex Salmond, later returned to prominence.

An informal title bestowed upon the youngest member of the House of Commons. The title holder is determined purely by their date of birth, and it is a term of convention rather than a formal office.

A funding mechanism created in the 1970s that determines the size of the “block grant” granted to the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland from the UK Treasury. It adjusts the grant each year based on changes in UK government spending in equivalent areas in England, applied on a per-capita basis, resulting in “Barnett consequentials”.

A faction on the left of the Labour Party aligned with Aneurin ‘Nye’ Bevan, the health minister credited with founding the NHS. They opposed the introduction of prescription charges and were generally associated with the push for unilateral nuclear disarmament. An ideological divide existed between this group and the Gaitskellite right wing of the party during the 1950s.

The lady or gentleman usher of the black rod, commonly known as black rod, is a senior official in the House of Lords, responsible for some administrative duties, security and ceremonial events. The role, which dates back to the 14th century, is one of the most ancient in the British parliament. The most famous duty of black rod is the role they play in the ceremony of the state opening of parliament.

An ebony rod dating from 1883, measuring three and a half feet long. It is used by black rod to strike the door of the House of Commons three times during the state opening of parliament, and features the motto of the Order of the Garter, “Honi soit qui mal y pense” (shame be to him, who evil thinks). It is decorated with a gold lion and a garter.

A school of thought associated with Maurice Glasman (Lord Glasman) that generally promotes culturally conservative values alongside a commitment to left-wing economic policies and workers’ rights. First articulated as a response to New Labour’s social liberalism and free-market globalisation, it lobbies the party to reconnect with its traditional working-class base through a politics centred on “faith, family and flag”.

A referendum on whether Northern Ireland should remain in the UK or form part of a united Ireland. Under the Northern Ireland Act 1998, the secretary of state has a legal duty to call such a vote if it appears likely that a majority of those voting would express a wish for reunification.

Founded in 2018 as a private limited company by Nigel Farage and Catherine Blaiklock, this single-issue eurosceptic entity topped the 2019 European Parliament elections. It later evolved into a broader political movement addressing domestic grievances, rebranding in 2021 as Reform UK to campaign for constitutional change, lower taxes and the removal of Covid-19 restrictions.

A UK-wide referendum held on 23 June 2016 in which 51.9% voted to leave the European Union, on a turnout of 72.2%. England and Wales voted Leave; Scotland and Northern Ireland voted Remain. David Cameron’s pledge to hold the vote was widely seen as an attempt to pacify Conservative eurosceptics and the electoral threat from the UK Independence Party (Ukip). He resigned after the result, which led to years of political and constitutional conflict over the terms of withdrawal.

The UK government’s annual statement on the nation’s finances and its proposals for changes to taxation and spending. It is presented to the House of Commons by the chancellor of the exchequer in a major speech that is one of the main set-piece events of the political calendar.

The famous red leather box held up by the chancellor for a traditional photo call outside 11 Downing Street on the morning of the budget. The original was made for William Gladstone around 1860; modern chancellors have mostly opted to use newer versions.

Legislation preventing any chancellor from making “fiscally significant” announcements (defined as costing at least 1% of GDP) without an accompanying independent forecast from the OBR.

A weekly statement made every Thursday by the leader of the House of Commons, announcing the planned parliamentary business for the following week. The commons leader then takes questions from MPs.

A cooperation agreement between the Scottish National Party (SNP) and the Scottish Greens from 2021 to 2024. It allowed two Green MSPs to become ministers and attend cabinet meetings, though specific areas were excluded from the principle of collective responsibility. First minister Humza Yousaf ended the agreement in April 2024; facing a vote of no confidence as a result, he resigned days later.

An election held in a single parliamentary constituency to fill a seat in the House of Commons that has become vacant between general elections, for example after an MP’s death, resignation, disqualification or a successful recall petition. While the voting process in a by-election is identical to a general election, their political character is distinct.

The ultimate decision-making body of the UK government, composed of the prime minister and the most senior government ministers (mostly secretaries of state). Members are appointed by the prime minister, meet weekly and are collectively accountable to parliament for all government decisions.

Smaller groups of ministers appointed by the prime minister to take decisions on specific policy areas. They may be convened to ensure inter-departmental cooperation, while their decisions carry the same authority as those of the full cabinet and are covered by collective responsibility.

A process by which a prime minister changes the composition of their top ministerial team using their power of patronage. It involves appointing, dismissing or moving ministers between departments to refresh the government, respond to events or manage the party. The process is highly stage-managed and usually coordinated from 10 Downing Street.

The most senior civil servant in the UK, who acts as the prime minister’s chief policy adviser and secretary to the cabinet. They are responsible for supporting the prime minister and the cabinet, while ensuring the effective running of government as a whole. The cabinet secretary is usually also head of the civil service.

A political controversy that triggered a police investigation into allegations that Labour and Conservative fundraisers offered life peerages in return for financial support. The crown prosecution service ultimately brought no charges, concluding there was no direct evidence of an explicit agreement exchanging gifts for honours.

A major 1990s political scandal where Conservative MPs Neil Hamilton and Tim Smith were accused of accepting cash bribes from Mohamed Al Fayed to ask parliamentary questions. It led to the creation of the Committee on Standards in Public Life (Nolan committee).

The abolition of political and social restrictions on Roman Catholics in Britain and Ireland, including the bar on sitting in parliament. Blocked by King George III upon the formation of the Anglo-Irish Union 1801, its failure caused the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as prime minister. It was eventually secured via the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 after a campaign led by Daniel O’Connell threatened civil unrest.

The symbol of royal authority in parliament. Without the mace being present on the table in the chamber, the House of Commons cannot sit, debate or pass laws. It is a silver-gilt ornamental club, around 1.5 metres long, and dates from the reign of King Charles II.

A tradition where the Yeomen of the Guard (the royal bodyguards) search the cellars of the Palace of Westminster ahead of the state opening of parliament to commemorate the 1605 Gunpowder Plot.

The government’s chief finance minister, who is responsible for all economic and financial matters, serving as the head of His Majesty’s Treasury. The chancellor’s principal role is to prepare the government’s annual budget, which includes proposals for taxation and public spending.

A pejorative term for when a sitting member of parliament decides not to seek re-election in their current constituency, and instead seeks selection for a different, usually safer, seat.

Formally the Crown Steward and Bailiff of the three Chiltern Hundreds of Stoke, Desborough and Burnham, MPs are appointed to this historic office of profit under the crown when they wish to stand down from parliament. Because MPs are technically forbidden from resigning their seats, accepting this position automatically disqualifies them from the House of Commons and triggers a by-election. The Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead functions in the same way.

The governing body for the historic square mile of the capital. It performs many of the same functions as the 32 London boroughs, but its constitution rests on ancient rights and charters, some predating the Norman Conquest. It is unique among UK councils in giving votes to businesses as well as residents, having its own police force and an elected lord mayor.

An inclusive form of nationalism that defines national identity by a sense of shared citizenship and an attachment to society, rather than by ethnicity or birthplace. It generally promotes an open, outward-looking and internationalist worldview. Those who make their home in a country are considered to have an equal stake in its future.

The fundamental rights and freedoms that protect individuals from arbitrary or unwarranted action by the state. In the United Kingdom, they are established in common law and statute. Key civil liberties include freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of association, freedom of movement and freedom from arbitrary arrest.

The permanent, politically impartial organisation that supports the government of the day in developing and implementing its policies. The civil service is organised into ministerial departments as well as non-ministerial departments and agencies.

The framework that sets out the core values and standards of behaviour expected of all UK civil servants. It mandates that they must carry out their duties with integrity, honesty, objectivity and impartiality.

The central component of Labour’s constitution outlining its aims and values. The original 1918 version committed the party to securing for workers “the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange”. It was revised under Tony Blair to reflect a market-oriented social democratic profile, committing to a “dynamic economy” and a society where “power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few”.

A political phenomenon during the 2010 general election sparked by Nick Clegg’s strong performance in the first televised debate – encapsulated by the unofficial “I agree with Nick” soundbite, repeated by Gordon Brown and David Cameron. It led to a significant, though ultimately temporary, surge in the polls for the Liberal Democrats, briefly upending the established two-party dynamic.

The chief procedural adviser to the House and its most senior permanent official. Dating back to 1363 and appointed by the monarch, this politically impartial figure advises the Speaker and MPs on parliamentary rules, signs the official record and serves as the accounting officer for the House of Commons.

A centre-left political party and the political arm of the British co-operative movement. Since the 1927 Cheltenham Agreement, it has maintained a permanent electoral alliance with the Labour Party, with candidates running on a joint ticket under the description “Labour and Co-operative Party”.

An administration where two or more political parties join together to govern, sharing ministerial posts, cabinet positions and responsibility for policy, usually underpinned by a formal agreement.

The United Kingdom’s national crisis management committee. It is convened on an ad-hoc basis to coordinate the central government’s response to emergencies or major disruptions that have a national impact. The name Cobra or COBR is a widely used shorthand for the Cabinet Office Briefing Rooms, the suite of secure meeting rooms in Whitehall where the committee meets.

A key constitutional convention requiring all ministers to publicly support and defend cabinet decisions, regardless of private reservations. It is underpinned by three principles: confidence, unanimity and confidentiality. Ministers who cannot comply are expected to resign.

Bodies, first created in 2011 under the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009, through which two or more English councils pool responsibility for strategic functions such as transport, economic development and skills. Many are led by a directly elected metro mayor and hold further powers under devolution deals, for example over housing or health in Greater Manchester. Under the government’s English devolution reforms, they are being reframed as “strategic authorities”.

A House of Commons select committee responsible for dealing with “specific matters relating to privileges”. It investigates breaches of privilege – such as an MP or minister deliberately misleading the House, or external interference in parliamentary business.

A procedure in the House of Commons where the detailed, clause-by-clause scrutiny of a bill takes place in the main chamber rather than a separate committee room. It allows every MP to participate and is typically reserved for major constitutional or emergency legislation.

A House of Commons select committee responsible for overseeing the rules of conduct for MPs and for recommending sanctions if those rules are broken. The committee’s primary function is to consider reports from the parliamentary commissioner for standards, who acts as the independent investigator into alleged breaches of the MPs code of conduct.

A system that legally mandates citizens to vote, as seen in Australia where turnout consistently exceeds 90% and non-voters face a small fine. Sceptics argue that compelling disengaged citizens to participate infringes on individual liberty and fails to address the underlying causes of political apathy.

A political arrangement that can enable a party without a majority of seats in a legislature to form a stable minority government. It is a formal deal in which a smaller party or independent members agree to support a government on votes of confidence and on supply (budgets and spending), without joining the government. In return it usually receives policy concessions or funding for its priorities.

The Conservative Party, also known as the Tory Party, is a dominant centre-right to right-wing force in British politics. It emerged in the 1830s from the older Tory tradition; its full name dates from its 1912 merger with the Liberal Unionists. Its ideology encompasses one-nation, Thatcherite and traditionalist factions. It generally advocates for the free market, lower taxation and the preservation of the union, whilst historically opposing constitutional reform.

The Conservative Party’s national headquarters, known as Conservative Central Office until 2004. Led by the chairman of the Conservative party, CCHQ runs national election campaigns, manages the party’s finances and administration, and maintains the list of approved parliamentary candidates from which local associations make their selections.

A mechanism that all Conservative Party members automatically belong to, which allows them to take part in the policy development process. Led by a director elected by the National Conservative Convention (NCC), the CPF conducts party-wide consultations and accepts submissions from members to help determine the political direction of the party.

A confidence and supply agreement struck after Theresa May, the prime minister from 2016 to 2019, lost her parliamentary majority following the 2017 general election. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) agreed to provide parliamentary support on confidence votes, budgets and Brexit legislation in exchange for an additional £1 billion of funding for Northern Ireland over two years.

The UK’s first coalition government since 1945, formed after the 2010 general election produced a hung parliament. David Cameron (Conservative) served as prime minister and Nick Clegg (Liberal Democrat) as deputy prime minister. It lasted a full five-year term.

Unwritten rules of political practice that are regarded as binding but are not enforceable in the courts, such as the requirement that the prime minister sits in the House of Commons or that the monarch gives royal assent to bills passed by parliament. They are seen as integral to the functioning of the British political system.

A political system where the monarch’s role is largely ceremonial, with actual power exercised by elected officials in accordance with agreed rules. The monarch acts as an impartial head of state, undertaking constitutional duties, while remaining above party politics.

Legislation that enshrined judicial independence in statute law. It drastically reduced the lord chancellor’s role, established the independent judicial appointments commission to make transparent, merit-based selections and authorised the creation of a separate UK supreme court, abolishing the appellate committee of the House of Lords.

A role appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, somewhat analogous to a party’s chief whip, responsible for organising the bishops in the House of Lords and coordinating their contributions to parliamentary business.

Peers who accept no party allegiance and sit on the crossbenches between the government and opposition. They speak and vote independently, often bringing significant professional experience from fields like the civil service or the military. Their presence means that no single political party holds an overall majority in the upper chamber.

The constitutional term for the supreme law-making authority in the UK: the monarch acting on the advice and with the consent of both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. It describes the legal formula that serves as the basis of parliamentary sovereignty.

A statement issued by a senior UK court under Section 4 of the Human Rights Act 1998 when an act of parliament cannot be interpreted compatibly with convention rights. It does not strike down the law but acts as an invitation for parliament to amend it.

A unionist party in Northern Ireland founded in 1971 by Ian Paisley, with roots in evangelical Protestantism. It began as a hard-line party of protest, employing a “never surrender” ethos, later evolving into a party of government. It is socially conservative and eurosceptic, focusing on maintaining Northern Ireland’s position in the United Kingdom.

A role normally assigned to a department’s permanent secretary, making them directly accountable to parliament for all departmental spending. Accounting officers must ensure spending meets four standards: regularity, propriety, value for money and feasibility.

Cross-party groups of backbench MPs responsible for examining the spending, administration and policy of a government department and its associated bodies. They conduct inquiries by gathering written and oral evidence, produce detailed reports with recommendations and require a formal government response.

Differences in turnout between groups of voters, which can shape election results as much as changes in party preference. Because long-standing critics of the government are often more motivated to vote than its supporters, this phenomenon helps explain why governing parties frequently perform poorly in by-elections, for example.

The formal action that brings an entire parliament to an end and triggers a general election. Under the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022, a prime minister can request a dissolution of parliament and call a general election at a time of their choosing. A general election must take place at least every five years.

Legislation that repealed the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 and revived the monarch’s prerogative power to dissolve parliament on the prime minister’s request, within a maximum five-year term.

The term for a formal vote in either House of Parliament, used when a voice vote is disputed. In the House of Commons, MPs have eight minutes from when the division bells ring to physically walk through either the “Aye” or “No” division lobby to register their vote. In the Lords, the lobbies are “Content” and “Not Content”.

A procedural deadlock reached during “ping-pong” when both Houses insist on their original positions regarding an amendment without offering any alternative proposals or compromises, normally resulting in the bill being lost. Goodwill and negotiations usually mean double insistence is not reached. The commons can also threaten to pass a bill without Lords consent using the Parliament Acts.

Debates held in Westminster Hall to discuss public e-petitions that have reached 100,000 signatures on the official parliament website.

At 10,000 signatures, the government is obliged to provide a formal written response. At 100,000 signatures, the petition is almost always scheduled for a parliamentary debate in Westminster Hall.

Motions tabled by MPs to record their views, highlight an issue, publicise a campaign or sometimes to congratulate constituents. While technically calling for a debate “on an early day”, they are almost never debated. Instead, they function as parliamentary petitions for backbench and opposition MPs to gauge support and raise awareness.

A political platform associated with Zack Polanski, leader of the Green Party of England and Wales since 2025. It seeks to broaden the party’s appeal beyond its core base by framing green policies in populist terms, utilising storytelling and more visible, imaginative tactics to appeal to voters disillusioned with mainstream parties like Labour.

The detailed five-year forecasts for the UK economy and public finances produced by the Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR). They are published twice a year, typically alongside the government’s spring and autumn fiscal events.

The first UK-wide referendum, held on 5 June 1975, two years after the UK joined the European Economic Community, following Harold Wilson’s renegotiation of the terms of membership. Voters backed remaining in by 67.2% to 32.8%, on a turnout of about 64%. To manage deep divisions in his party, Wilson suspended collective responsibility so ministers could campaign on either side.

A blackout period banning the publication of opinion polls during an election campaign, as in countries such as France and Italy. Proponents argue election-time polling impacts voter behaviour and crowds out more substantive debate, while critics argue a blanket ban would restrict information and would lead to unverified leaks and selective briefings. The UK has no such ban.

The percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot, acting as a key measure of political engagement and democratic legitimacy. Turnout at UK general elections fluctuates but has generally declined in the post-war period from 83.9% in 1950 to 59.7% in 2024.

A term popularised by Conservative peer Lord Hailsham in 1976, describing a scenario where a governing party with a strong majority and strict whipping operation can dominate parliament and pass laws with little effective restraint.

An arrangement in which parties agree not to stand candidates against each other in certain constituencies, to avoid splitting the vote and improve their chances of defeating a shared opponent

The generic, open question that begins prime minister’s questions, asking the prime minister to list their “official engagements for the day.” After the prime minister’s prepared response, MPs can ask unscripted supplementary questions on any topic.

A platform that positioned the Liberal Democrats centrally between the two main parties. It meant the party was equally willing or unwilling to enter a coalition with either Labour or the Conservatives. As leader, Paddy Ashdown (1988-1999) abandoned this stance and embraced cooperation with New Labour.

A highly organised faction of eurosceptic Conservative MPs that emerged from the Maastricht debates under John Major. Described as a party within a party, it was a leading advocate for Brexit and opposed Theresa May’s withdrawal agreement. Its hardline members, including the so-called “Brexit spartans”, proved instrumental in May’s eventual downfall as prime minister.

A designated part of a government department, such as the DVLA or the Met Office, created to handle specific operational tasks. They have less independence than non-departmental public bodies (NDPBs) and are under the direct authority of their department’s minister.

Absolute exemptions involve matters where there is no duty to consider disclosure, such as national security, personal information or where it is necessary to protect commercial interests. A qualified exemption is where the organisation can judge whether releasing or withholding the information would best serve the public interest and meet a public interest test.

A scandal triggered in May 2009 by the Daily Telegraph publication of leaked, unredacted details of MPs’ expense claims. It revealed widespread misuse of public money by MPs across all parties, sparking public outrage, the resignation of Michael Martin (the first speaker forced from office in over 300 years), and the creation of the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority (Ipsa) to regulate MPs’ pay and expenses.

An honorary title bestowed upon the male MP with the longest record of continuous, unbroken service in the House of Commons. The one formal duty of the father of the House is to preside over the election of the speaker of the House of Commons.

The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928, passed by Stanley Baldwin’s Conservative government, granted the vote to all women over the age of 21 across all elections.

The annual piece of legislation that goes through parliament to give legal effect to the taxation proposals announced in the budget.

A powerful and longstanding constitutional convention asserting the House of Commons’ supremacy over financial affairs, rooted in resolutions of the 1670s and reinforced by the Parliament Act 1911. It means that when MPs reject a Lords amendment on the grounds of financial privilege, the Lords by convention does not insist.

A historic office that the prime minister almost always holds alongside the premiership. The last prime minister not to hold it was Lord Salisbury in 1902. The first lord’s official residence is 10 Downing Street, which is why the prime minister lives there.

The head of the Scottish Government, nominated by the Scottish Parliament and formally appointed by the monarch. The first minister heads the government, chairs the cabinet and is responsible for overall policy direction and strategy, usually being the leader of the largest party at Holyrood.

The head of the Welsh Government and typically leader of the largest party in the Senedd. Nominated by MSs and formally appointed by the monarch, the first minister chairs the cabinet and is responsible for the overall policy and strategy of the devolved administration.

A mechanism for holding the Scottish Government to account, taking place every Thursday for 45 minutes. The first minister answers questions from opposition leaders and backbench MSPs regarding any aspect of the government’s responsibilities, providing a public forum for scrutiny.

The main weekly event of the Senedd’s parliamentary timetable, taking place for 45 minutes every Tuesday afternoon. The first minister answers questions on any aspect of their responsibility from opposition leaders and backbench MSs, whose questions are selected by ballot.

A plurality electoral system used for UK general elections where the candidate with the most votes in a single-member constituency wins the seat, regardless of the overall national vote shares. This often creates a “winner’s bonus” that exaggerates the victory of the winning party and can penalise smaller parties.

The first formal stage of a bill’s journey through parliament. It is a procedural step where the short title of the bill is read out in the chamber, with no debate or vote taking place. It marks the bill’s official arrival and precipitates the publication of its text.

Legislation that introduced fixed five-year terms for the UK parliament. It dictated that an early election could only occur if two-thirds of MPs voted for one, or if the government lost a formal no-confidence vote and no alternative could be formed within 14 days. It was repealed by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022.

The secretary of state for foreign, commonwealth and development affairs, commonly known as the foreign secretary, is responsible for the UK’s foreign policy and its relationships with other countries and international organisations.

The Representation of the People Act 1918 abolished property qualifications for men over 21 and, for the first time, extended the vote to women aged over 30. It also provided a “soldier’s vote” for those aged 19 who had seen active service, while disenfranchising conscientious objectors until 1926.

A vote in parliament in which parties do not issue a whip, leaving MPs and peers free to vote according to their own judgement or conscience. Free votes are usually held on moral or ethical issues, such as capital punishment, abortion, same-sex marriage and assisted dying.

A landmark piece of legislation that provides a public “right of access” to recorded information held by public authorities in the UK. Introduced by the Blair government to increase transparency, authorities must normally respond within 20 working days, either by releasing the information or explaining whether an exemption applies.

A faction on the social democratic right wing of the Labour Party, aligned with Hugh Gaitskell. Emerging during the 1950s, they campaigned against the party’s stance on unilateral nuclear disarmament, and attempted to revise the original Clause IV commitment to sweeping nationalisation. An ideological divide existed between this group and Labour’s Bevanite left during the 1950s. Some MPs and activists associated with this tradition later defected to form the breakaway Social Democratic Party in 1981.

A category of parliamentary debate introduced following a 2007 modernisation committee report to replace the use of adjournment motions for substantive debates. Proposed by the government or backbenchers (via the backbench business committee), these take place on the motion “That this House has considered…” to allow discussion without the House coming to a definitive conclusion.

Historic peace accord reached on 10 April 1998. It established a new political framework based on three strands: a devolved assembly and power-sharing executive in Northern Ireland, North-South ministerial cooperation and East-West relations through the British-Irish Council. It was underpinned by the “principle of consent” regarding Northern Ireland’s constitutional status and endorsed by referendums in both Northern Ireland and the Republic.

A formal process through which the public and interested organisations provide views on proposed policy or regulations to assist evidence-based policymaking. Governed by specific principles, departments are instructed to publish responses within 12 weeks of the consultation or provide an explanation why this is not possible.

An enduring strategic fault line within the SNP. Fundamentalists favour a more uncompromising, immediate pursuit of independence. Gradualists argue that building electoral credibility, demonstrating competence in devolved government and incrementally expanding Holyrood’s powers will strengthen the case for independence.

The four most senior and prestigious ministerial posts in the British government: prime minister, chancellor of the exchequer, foreign secretary and home secretary.

Created in 2000 following a 1998 referendum, this is the strategic authority for the whole of London. It consists of two branches: an executive mayor and the 25-member London Assembly, which work together to oversee city-wide functions like transport, policing and economic development.

An official consultation document issued by the government to stimulate public discussion and gather views on a policy area at an early, formative stage. It outlines tentative options for reform before a firm position is taken, preceding a white paper and eventual legislation.

An environmentalist and progressive party advocating for a transition to a zero-carbon society and a radical transformation of society. It expanded its parliamentary presence to four seats in 2024.

A major controversy where former prime minister David Cameron privately texted senior government figures, apparently on behalf of the finance firm Greensill Capital. Although cleared of breaking the rules of his own 2014 Lobbying Act, a parliamentary committee found he showed a “significant lack of judgement”.

When two or more MPs table similar oral questions, the minister can decide to group them together to save time. The minister gives a single answer, and the respective MPs are then called successively to ask their supplementaries.

The attempted regicide by English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, who planned to blow up the Palace of Westminster during the state opening of parliament on 5 November 1605. Guy Fawkes, who was guarding the gunpowder, was arrested in the cellars underneath the Houses of Parliament on the night of 4-5 November. The plot is commemorated on Bonfire Night.

Controversial clauses in primary legislation that give ministers the power to use secondary legislation to amend, repeal or alter the effect of primary acts of parliament. Critics argue this represents a significant transfer of power from the legislature to the executive, dodging parliamentary scrutiny.

The system, used from 1999 to 2026, for filling vacancies among the 92 hereditary peers allowed to remain in the House of Lords. When one of these peers died or retired, a replacement was elected, usually by the hereditary peers of the same party or crossbench group, from a register of hereditary peers wishing to stand. The system was abolished by the House of Lords (Hereditary Peers) Act 2026.

Members of the aristocracy who inherit titles (Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount or Baron) from a relative. Historically entitled to sit in the House of Lords, their automatic right was removed by the House of Lords Act 1999, though 92 were retained via the Weatherill amendment until the House of Lords (Hereditary Peers) Act 2026 abolished their remaining seats and the by-election system used to replace them.

The secretary of state for the Home Department, commonly known as the home secretary, is responsible for the internal affairs of the United Kingdom, including national security. The home secretary’s wide-ranging remit includes policing in England and Wales, counter-terrorism, immigration and borders and the functions of the passport office. The home secretary has oversight of the Security Service (MI5).

Legislation, prompted by a 1922 royal commission into the sale of honours under David Lloyd George’s government, that made it a criminal offence to offer, give or receive any payment or gift in return for obtaining an honour. Only one person has ever been convicted under the act, Maundy Gregory, the broker at the centre of the Lloyd George sales, in 1933.

A Cabinet Office body that can recommend an honour be revoked if the recipient is perceived to have brought the honours system into disrepute, for example, by receiving a criminal conviction. Recommendations are submitted to the monarch, who alone has the authority to revoke an honour.

The method by which the monarch, acting as the “fountain of honour”, rewards individuals for outstanding merit, service or bravery. It encompasses a complex hierarchy of orders, decorations and medals. Most honours are awarded on the prime minister’s advice after vetting by independent honours committees, and anyone can nominate.

The tradition, observed during the state opening of parliament, where the vice-chamberlain of the household (a government whip) is held at Buckingham Palace until the monarch safely returns from parliament, acting as a symbolic guarantee of the sovereign’s safety.

The primary legislative chamber of Britain’s bicameral parliament. It is the democratically elected lower House consisting of 650 MPs, each representing a geographic constituency. Its key functions include debating and voting on legislation, holding the government to account and exclusively authorising taxation and public spending. The government is formed from, and must keep the confidence of, the commons.

Cross-party groups of backbench MPs who scrutinise government departments and public policy. They conduct inquiries by gathering evidence from ministers, civil servants and experts, ultimately producing reports with recommendations. Since the 2010 Wright reforms, their chairs are elected by secret ballot, enhancing their independence and mandate to hold the executive to account.

Via the exhaustive ballot since 2001. MPs vote for one candidate; if no one receives over 50%, the candidate with the fewest votes (and anyone under 5%) is eliminated. Voting repeats in successive rounds until one candidate secures a majority.

The unelected second chamber of the UK parliament, comprising around 800 members including life peers (lords temporal) and the lords spiritual. Its primary constitutional function is to act as a revising and scrutinising body. It can delay legislation, propose amendments and conduct committee inquiries.

Legislation introduced by the Labour government that successfully removed the right of the remaining 92 hereditary peers to sit and vote in the upper chamber. While they retain their titles, this act permanently abolished the system of hereditary by-elections and ended the hereditary principle in the UK parliament.

Legislation passed by the Blair government that removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit and vote in the House of Lords. Under the Weatherill amendment, a compromise to prevent the Lords blocking the bill, 92 hereditary peers were retained.

A non-statutory advisory body established in 2000. It vets party-political nominees for propriety (though cannot block them) and is responsible for recommending independent, non-party-political crossbenchers.

Small, cross-party groups of peers appointed to scrutinise the government and investigate major public policy issues. Unlike the departmental model in the House of Commons, they typically have a broader, thematic remit focusing on issues spanning multiple departments, such as the constitution or the economy.

The House of Lords timetable is highly flexible with no fixed end time (unlike the House of Commons’ “moment of interruption”). The House sits until all scheduled business is completed, which can result in late-night or even overnight sessions during contentious legislation.

A landmark piece of UK legislation that incorporated the rights set out in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into domestic law, allowing citizens to defend their rights in UK courts.

A situation where no single political party holds an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons. Hung parliaments most commonly arise as a result of an inconclusive general election. This leads to a period of negotiation between the political parties to determine who can form a stable government.

Legislation banning the hunting of wild mammals with dogs, including fox hunting and hare coursing, in England and Wales. After the House of Lords repeatedly refused to accept the ban, it became the most recent of the seven acts passed under the Parliament Acts.

Public bills that have a disproportionate impact on private interests. Because of this, affected people and organisations can petition against the bill and be heard by a select committee, making their passage long and complex. They are almost exclusively used to secure parliamentary approval for major national infrastructure projects. Examples include the bills which led to the construction of the Channel Tunnel and Crossrail, and those that made provision for the HS2 rail.

A ground for judicial review where a public body acted beyond its legal powers, meaning it did something it had no power to do, used its power for an improper purpose or took into account irrelevant factors in its decision-making.

An official appointed by the prime minister to advise on the management of ministers’ interests and to investigate alleged breaches of the ministerial code. Following 2024 reforms, they can initiate investigations based on public information without needing the prime minister’s prior consent. The prime minister still decides whether the code has been breached and what sanction applies.

A proposed independent body to organise televised general election debates in the UK, which since 2010 have been negotiated case by case between broadcasters and parties. Proponents argue it would ensure debates happen consistently with fair rules, preventing politicians from vetoing participation or dictating terms to broadcasters. The US Commission on Presidential Debates is often cited as a model.

A socialist party founded in Bradford in 1893 by delegates from socialist societies, trade unions and local labour groups, growing disillusionment with the Liberal Party. Led initially by Keir Hardie, it aimed for collective ownership of the means of production. It helped found the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, which became the Labour Party in 1906.

The independent body created under the Parliamentary Standards Act 2009 to oversee MPs’ pay, pensions and business costs. Established in response to the 2009 expenses scandal, Ipsa determines annual salary changes, typically linking them to average public sector earnings.

Insider pressure groups have regular, direct access to government decision-makers and are often consulted on policy. Outsider groups lack this access and may rely on media campaigns, protests and direct action to exert influence.

An impartial think tank that provides independent analysis of the UK’s public finances. It is highly prominent during fiscal events (like the budget) for explaining the real-world impact of government tax and spending decisions.

Committees focused on the internal functioning and administration of parliament rather than the direct scrutiny of government ministers. Examples include the finance, administration and modernisation committees. The chair of the standards and privileges committees, which oversee MP conduct, must be a member of the official opposition.

A ground for judicial review where a decision is seen as so unreasonable that no public body, acting reasonably, could have possibly made it. This is a high threshold for a claimant to meet and is often referred to as “Wednesbury unreasonableness”.

The Independent Commission on the Voting System, chaired by Roy Jenkins and set up by the Blair government. It recommended replacing first past the post (FPTP) with “AV+”, under which most MPs would be elected in constituencies by the alternative vote, with the rest elected from top-up lists to make results more proportional. The report was never implemented.

Committees composed of both MPs and peers that collaborate on specific areas of scrutiny or legislation. They can be permanent, such as those for human rights and statutory instruments, or temporary for examining draft bill proposals. They appoint a single chair from either House and provide a mechanism for both chambers to work together on matters of technical or constitutional importance.

A constitutional principle requiring the judiciary to remain separate from the executive and legislature. This ensures impartial, consistent judgements without undue influence, protecting the rule of law. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 placed a statutory duty on ministers to uphold judicial independence and unwound the lord chancellor’s fused judicial and legislative roles.

The legal process where a judge examines the lawfulness of a decision or action by a public body to ensure it operates within its powers. Decisions can be found unlawful on grounds of illegality, irrationality or procedural impropriety. Crucially, the court assesses the lawfulness of the process used to reach a decision, not the merits of the decision itself.

A royal commission on the constitution established in 1969 to examine the relationship between the countries and regions of the UK. Its 1973 report recommended legislative devolution for Scotland and Wales through 100-member assemblies elected by STV, alongside a reduction in the number of Scottish and Welsh MPs at Westminster.

A parliamentary rule, distinct from royal assent, requiring the government to seek the monarch’s or Prince of Wales’ consent before parliament can pass a bill affecting the royal prerogative or the Crown’s private interests. Consent is given on ministerial advice and is almost always a formality.

The speech read by the monarch from the throne in the House of Lords during the state opening of parliament, setting out the government’s legislative programme and policy priorities. It is written entirely by the government. MPs then debate it for several days before voting on the “loyal address” thanking the monarch, a vote traditionally treated as a test of confidence in the government.

A party faction/school of thought that traditionally embraces socialist principles, widespread public ownership, wealth redistribution, an anti-imperialist foreign policy and strong commitments to workers’ rights. Historically associated with Tony Benn and later Jeremy Corbyn, its standard-bearer within the parliamentary party remains the Socialist Campaign Group (SCG), which has consistently nominated candidates from the left for leadership contests.

A centre-left party founded in 1900 as the Labour Representation Committee (renamed in 1906), with origins in the trade union movement. Many trade unions remain affiliated and influential in its structures. It is a broad coalition of social democrats, democratic socialists and trade unionists, committed to using the state to promote social justice, strong public services and a mixed economy.

A tradition generally represented as a bridge between the ideological poles of the party, emphasising pluralism and democratic reform. It emerged in the early 1980s when Neil Kinnock and others in the Tribune Group broke with the Bennite left. Figures associated with it include Kinnock, Ed Miliband and Andy Burnham.

A long-standing convention stating that whether the law officers have given legal advice – and the content of that advice – must not be disclosed outside government without their explicit consent.

The government minister and cabinet member responsible for planning and managing the government’s legislative programme in the lower chamber. They also have a wider responsibility to uphold the rights and procedures of the House and to represent the interests of all MPs in government.

A cabinet minister responsible for managing the passage of government business through the House of Lords. While they are a political appointee who heads the government’s team of ministers and whips in the Lords, the leader also has a wider responsibility to the House as a whole, including advising on procedure and upholding its traditions of self-regulation.

The formal mechanism through which a devolved legislature grants or withholds approval for the UK government to pass legislation containing provisions that fall within the scope of devolved competence.

This so-called “committee of committees” or “super committee” is composed of the cross-party chairs of all the other commons select committees. It has a broad oversight role, but is best known for its questioning of the prime minister in sessions that take place two or three times a year.

A 15-month arrangement where the Liberal Party supported James Callaghan’s minority Labour administration. Among other elements, Labour announced the creation of a joint consultative committee and agreed to progress legislation for Scottish and Welsh devolution.

A liberal political party occupying the centre to centre-left ground, formally constituted in 1988 through a merger between the historic Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The party exists to “build and safeguard a fair, free and open society”, balancing the “fundamental values of liberty, equality and community, and in which no-one shall be enslaved by poverty, ignorance or conformity.”

Federalism. This federation comprises state parties for England, Scotland and Wales. The state parties possess sovereignty in their respective nations, while the federal party manages reserved powers including overall strategy, preparations for parliamentary elections, candidate selection, media relations and international relationships.

A group of Liberals, led by Lord Hartington and Joseph Chamberlain, that broke away from Gladstone’s Liberal Party in 1886 to oppose the First Irish Home Rule Bill, arguing it threatened the Union, the empire and Ireland’s Protestant minority. They allied with the Conservatives, entered government with them in 1895, and formally merged with them in 1912, creating the Conservative and Unionist Party.

Members of the House of Lords appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission (Holac) for their lifetime. They cannot pass their title or seat to their children. Introduced by the Life Peerages Act 1958, they make up the vast majority (approx. 700) of the upper chamber.

A statement issued on 25 January 1981 by the “Gang of Four” – Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Shirley Williams and Bill Rodgers – launching the Council for Social Democracy, which became the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in March 1981. It was a direct response to the Labour Party’s shift to the left and changes to leadership election procedures agreed at the Wembley conference.

Signed on 10 April 1991, this agreement committed Plaid Cymru and Green Party representatives to a joint campaign and a shared parliamentary programme built around environmentalism. It led to the 1992 election of Cynog Dafis, who acted as an instrument for the green movement in parliament, before the pact was dissolved in 1995 following internal opposition.

The impartial chair of the Senedd, elected by secret ballot by MSs. The Llywydd oversees debates, represents the Senedd ceremonially and chairs the Senedd Commission. The commission has responsibility for the provision of property, staff and services required to enable the Senedd to function.

Daily on-the-record but off-camera meetings between the prime minister’s official spokesperson and political journalists. By convention, the spokesperson cannot be quoted directly or named; information is attributed simply to “Downing Street” or “No 10”.

Attempts by individuals, businesses, charities and other special interest groups to influence government decision-making. This can include shaping the content of new legislation, altering government policy or securing public contracts.

Legislation, formally known as the Transparency of Lobbying, Non-Party Campaigning and Trade Union Administration Act 2014, that established a statutory register of consultant lobbyists. The register of consultant lobbyists is managed and maintained by the Office of the Registrar of Consultant Lobbyists (ORCL). It has been criticised for not covering in-house lobbying activity.

A 25-member body that holds the mayor of London to account. While lacking legislative power, it conducts scrutiny through investigations and questioning, and possesses the power to reject statutory strategies or alter the mayor’s annual budget if a two-thirds majority agrees.

The 32 principal local authorities in the capital, divided into 12 inner and 20 outer boroughs. Created in 1965, these councils are responsible for delivering the majority of local public services, including education, social services, housing, waste collection and the billing and collection of council tax.

The lord president acts as the presiding officer of the privy council, the body through which the monarch formally makes orders in council on ministerial advice. The office is often held alongside the role of leader of the House of Commons.

The presiding officer of the House of Lords, a role created in 2006 under the Constitutional Reform Act. The lord speaker chairs proceedings impartially and represents the House. Unlike the commons speaker, the lord speaker has few procedural powers; the Lords regulates itself, so the House as a whole, not the lord speaker, maintains order.

The lord speaker is elected by the members of the House of Lords using the alternative vote (AV) system. Each candidate requires a proposer and a seconder. They produce an election address of up to 300 words and take part in hustings.

The 26 archbishops and bishops of the Church of England who hold seats in the House of Lords. This makes the UK one of only two countries to grant religious representatives an automatic place in its legislature (alongside Iran).

Legislation that gives female bishops priority in appointments to the House of Lords. When a vacancy arises, any eligible woman must be appointed over male colleagues, a measure extended in January 2025 to remain in force until 2030.

A peace settlement between King John and rebellious barons that placed limits on royal power. Its lasting importance is largely symbolic: it came to be seen as the origin of the principle that the monarch is subject to the law, and later inspired ideas such as trial by jury and habeas corpus.

The directly elected executive head of the Greater London Authority (GLA). The mayor sets the GLA budget and oversees Transport for London, holding broad powers over transport, housing and the environment. With an electorate of around 6 million, the mayor is often said to hold the largest personal mandate in UK politics.

A bill introduced by Labour MP Tam Dalyell aiming to require a simple majority commons vote before military action could be authorised, restricting a prerogative power. It was blocked from progressing because the government advised the monarch to withhold “queen’s consent”, preventing parliament from debating a restriction on the executive’s war powers.

The official rulebook detailing the standards of conduct expected of all UK government ministers. It is issued by the prime minister, who acts as the ultimate judge of whether the code has been breached and what sanctions apply.

A formal written instruction from a minister ordering a permanent secretary to proceed with a spending proposal despite the official’s objections regarding its financial feasibility or value for money.

The salary paid to government ministers on top of their pay as MPs (or, for ministers in the Lords, instead of it). Governments have voluntarily frozen ministerial salaries since 2010, so ministers receive less than their legal entitlement.

Mid-level ministers who work under a secretary of state in a government department. They are typically given responsibility for a specific policy area within the department’s remit. Some may be invited to attend cabinet.

MPs or peers appointed by the prime minister to government roles. They are responsible for setting departmental policy and are accountable to parliament.

A set time, governed by the House of Commons standing orders, when main business must conclude for the day. It is typically followed by a half-hour adjournment debate before the House formally rises. However, the government can table a business of the House motion to exempt business from this cut-off.

A category of legislation defined by the Parliament Act 1911 dealing with a narrow range of financial matters, such as central government taxation, public spending or loans. Once certified by the commons speaker, the House of Lords cannot amend or block it.

A resolution of the House of Commons authorising new public spending in a bill. These are typically dealt with immediately after the main second reading vote has passed.

An informal title for the woman with the longest unbroken service in the House of Commons. The role is informal and carries no official duties or additional salary.

The formal process initiated when a seat becomes vacant, typically by the chief whip of the party that previously held the seat. It is a request for the commons speaker to issue a warrant to begin the election process, usually within three months of the vacancy occurring.

Multilevel Regression and Post-stratification. A highly detailed polling technique that models constituency-level results by combining individual characteristics with geographic demographic data, estimating how the specific population mix in each seat will vote.

A party system in which more than two parties win significant support and have a realistic chance of influencing who governs. The UK has long been described as a two-party system, but support has fragmented in recent years. The devolved legislatures, elected by proportional systems, are already multi-party.

Written parliamentary questions that require the government to provide an answer on a day chosen by the MP. MPs can table a maximum of five named day questions per day.

Described as the “parliament of the voluntary party”, the NCC represents the views of party members, serves as a link between the leader and members and elects representatives to the party board. Composed of local and regional chairmen, it holds significant sway over constitutional amendments.

The principal governing body of the Labour Party, responsible for setting strategic direction, overseeing policy development processes, managing finances and administering disciplinary matters. It includes the leader and deputy leader, representatives of the frontbench, trade unions, constituency parties (elected by members), MPs and socialist societies. Although its decision-making significance has declined since the 1980s, it remains the ultimate administrative authority.

The body constitutionally responsible for the development of Labour Party policy, comprising around 200 representatives from all sections of the Labour movement. It operates through policy commissions that consult with members and affiliates over a five-year cycle. Its work culminates in a final report that feeds into the Clause V meeting, in which the election manifesto is agreed and finalised.

The most common procedure for passing statutory instruments. An SI is laid before parliament and automatically becomes law on a stated date unless either House passes a motion to annul it (a “prayer”), usually within 40 days. Fatal prayers are exceptionally rare.

The rebranding and governing project of the Labour Party under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown (1994–2010). It embraced a “third way” ideological positioning, attempting to combine market economics with social justice. Its supporters are often called Blairites.

A chaotic reshuffle, characterised by communications errors and gaffes, conducted by Theresa May. The reshuffle exposed her lack of political authority after senior ministers (notably Jeremy Hunt) successfully refused to be moved or demoted.

Harold Macmillan’s July 1962 reshuffle, in which he sacked seven cabinet ministers, a third of the cabinet, including chancellor Selwyn Lloyd, in an attempt to revive his unpopular government. It was widely seen as panicked and overly brutal.

The ‘Seven Principles of Public Life’ established in 1995 (Selflessness, Integrity, Objectivity, Accountability, Openness, Honesty and Leadership) which form the ethical foundation of the ministerial code, civil service code of conduct and MPs code of conduct.

Cross-party groups of backbench MPs with a remit spanning multiple government departments, focusing on specific issues or the machinery of government rather than a single policy portfolio. Prominent examples include the public accounts committee (Pac), which scrutinises value for money in public spending, and the public administration and constitutional affairs committee (Pacac).

Public bodies, commonly known as “quangos” (quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations), that carry out government functions at arm’s length from ministers. NDPBs have their own staff, who are not civil servants, and operate within a framework set by their sponsoring department, through which they are accountable to ministers and parliament.

Government departments in their own right, but they are not headed by a minister (eg Ofsted, HMRC). Instead, they are led by a board or chief executive who is directly accountable to parliament. Ministers do not have direct control over them.

A 2004 vote where the public emphatically rejected the Labour government’s plan to establish an elected regional assembly. The successful ‘No’ campaign argued the assembly would be an expensive “white elephant”, effectively ending the policy of extending regional devolution across England.

The devolved legislature for Northern Ireland, based at Stormont. Established by the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, it has the power to legislate on transferred domestic matters and operates under a mandatory cross-community power-sharing arrangement. Its 90 members are elected by single transferable vote and designate as unionist, nationalist or other.

All MPs and peers in the House of Lords must swear or affirm their loyalty to the monarch of the day upon their election and/or at the beginning of a new parliament in order to assume their seats. By convention, MPs also retake the oath following the death of a monarch.

The independent fiscal watchdog created in 2010. It is tasked with providing impartial economic and fiscal forecasts. Its analysis forms the basis for the government’s budget plans.

The largest political party in the House of Commons that is not in government. It acts as a “government-in-waiting” by developing alternative policies and scrutinising the current administration. To enable it to function effectively, the official opposition is granted specific rights and resources by parliament.

A tradition historically associated with Benjamin Disraeli that emphasises paternalism and social responsibility. In contemporary politics, those with claims to this tradition support well-funded public services, environmental stewardship and a pragmatic approach to economic management and state intervention. They have historically embraced Keynesian economic theory.

The lowest level of whip, in which the party’s position on a vote is indicated by a single underline. Attendance is requested but not required.

A digital method of casting a ballot using an internet-connected device from any location. Currently used in Estonia, where 51% of voters cast ballots electronically in 2023. Potential drawbacks include the risk of technical failures, cyber-attacks and the exclusion of voters with limited digital literacy or poor broadband coverage.

Surveys of public opinion used to estimate the voting intentions of the electorate. They are a prominent feature of British political life, delivering insights into party support and leader approval ratings, courtesy of a host of polling companies.

Twenty days per parliamentary session where opposition parties choose the debate topics. The leader of the opposition is allocated 17 of these, providing a major platform for the shadow cabinet to challenge government policy and force a vote. Three go to the second-largest opposition party.

A formal, in-person announcement made by a government minister at the dispatch box in the House of Commons (or Lords). It is used to announce major policies, respond to national emergencies or report on international events, allowing MPs to immediately question and scrutinise the government.

A session held at the start of most sitting days where government ministers must answer questions in person from MPs about their department’s work, ensuring regular on-the-record scrutiny.

A 40-minute period at the start of each sitting day where peers question government ministers. Unlike in the House of Commons, up to four questions are posed to the government as a whole rather than specific departments, meaning each question can address an entirely different area of policy.

A collection of essays by leading Liberal Democrats, edited by David Laws and Paul Marshall, with contributors including Nick Clegg, Vince Cable, Chris Huhne and Ed Davey. Drawing on classical liberalism, it argued for greater use of markets and choice in public services, lower taxes and deregulation. It challenged the party’s social liberal wing and is often seen as laying the intellectual groundwork for Liberal Democrat participation in the 2010-2015 coalition

The largest order of chivalry, founded in 1917, which is graded in five classes ranging from Member (MBE) to Knight or Dame Grand Cross (GBE).

Legal instruments issued by the monarch on the advice of the Privy Council. Made under prerogative or statutory powers (authority granted by acts of parliament), they are used for a wide range of purposes, including the exercise of powers delegated by statute, granting royal charters to institutions and making emergency regulations.

Written parliamentary questions that have no fixed deadline for a response. Government departments aim to provide an answer within five working days of the question being tabled. Technically, MPs may table an unlimited number of ordinary written questions when the House is sitting.

A token bill given a formal first reading in the House of Commons before debating the monarch’s speech, symbolising the chamber’s right to discuss matters of its own choosing.

A 2021 scandal in which the committee on standards recommended suspending Conservative MP Owen Paterson for 30 days after finding he had made an “egregious” breach of paid advocacy rules by lobbying on behalf of two companies that paid him as a consultant, Randox and Lynn’s Country Foods. The Johnson government whipped MPs to block the suspension and overhaul the standards system, but reversed its position in the face of cross-party backlash. Paterson resigned, and the Conservatives lost his North Shropshire seat to the Liberal Democrats in a by-election.

A long-standing informal arrangement in which an MP from one party agrees with an MP from an opposing party not to vote in a particular division (a formal vote). This allows both MPs to be absent from Westminster without affecting the final result, as their absences cancel each other out.

Landmark legislation that established the supremacy of the commons by removing the Lords’ veto over Money Bills and replacing their absolute veto over other public bills with a delaying power of two years (across three sessions). It also reduced the maximum lifespan of a parliament from seven to five years.

Legislation passed by the Attlee government that further reduced the House of Lords’ delaying power over public bills from two years down to one year (across two sessions). It was passed using the provisions of the Parliament Act 1911, which replaced the Lords’ absolute veto over public bills with a delaying power of two years.

Two crucial pieces of constitutional law that allow the House of Commons to pass legislation without the consent of the House of Lords. The 1911 act, passed after the Lords rejected the People’s Budget and under the threat of mass creation of Liberal peers, replaced the House of Lords veto with a two-year delay. The 1949 Act, passed using the 1911 procedure, reduced the delay to one year. The acts have been used seven times, most recently for the Hunting Act 2004.

The informal term for the legislative process where a bill travels back and forth between the House of Commons and the House of Lords due to disagreements over proposed amendments.

The independent investigator into alleged breaches of the MPs code of conduct. When the parliamentary commissioner for standards investigates a complaint against an MP and finds that a breach of the code of conduct has occurred, their report is passed to the committee on standards, which considers the findings.

A formal request from a member of the public asking the UK government or the House of Commons to take action on a specific issue. It is a direct way for citizens to raise issues with parliament and the government. All official e-petitions are hosted on the petition.parliament.uk website.

Unpaid parliamentary assistants, providing a link between the senior frontbencher and backbench MPs. A PPS is bound by collective responsibility and is sometimes referred to as a minister’s “eyes and ears”. The role is widely regarded as the first step on the ministerial ladder.

The defining principle of the UK constitution, famously articulated by A.V. Dicey. It holds that the UK parliament is the supreme legal authority in the country and that it can create, amend or repeal any law it wishes.

The most junior rank of minister. Parliamentary under-secretaries work as part of a ministerial team, supporting the secretary of state and ministers of state in their parliamentary and departmental duties.

The division of Ireland on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It created Northern Ireland, consisting of six north-eastern counties in Ulster, and Southern Ireland. While the 1920 act envisioned both remaining in the UK, the south later became the Irish Free State, leaving Northern Ireland as a separate entity within the United Kingdom.

Voters choose a party rather than a candidate. Each party presents a list of candidates, and seats are allocated to each party in direct proportion to their share of the vote in a multi-member constituency or region. In a so-called “closed list” system, the party determines the order of candidates. “Open list” systems differ in that voters may cast votes for specific candidates on a party list, influencing which candidates are ultimately elected.

The bloc of all government ministers and appointees who sit in parliament who are expected to vote with the government in every division (formal vote). It exists because ministers and parliamentary private secretaries (PPSs) are bound by the constitutional convention of collective responsibility. This disciplined bloc of votes gives the government a significant advantage in passing its legislative programme.

Legislation resulting from Tony Benn’s campaign to remain in the House of Commons after inheriting a viscounty. The act allowed hereditary peers to disclaim their titles for life, enabled female hereditary peers to sit in the Lords and ended the separate election of Scottish representative peers.

The original name of the Green Party, founded in Coventry in 1973 by a “Gang of Four” including Tony and Lesley Whittaker. It was the first environmentalist party in Europe, adopting a zero-growth agenda to confront an imminent ecological crisis before rebranding as the Ecology Party in 1975.

A radical fiscal package introduced by chancellor David Lloyd George to fund sweeping social welfare programmes and naval expansion. Its unprecedented rejection by the Conservative-dominated House of Lords sparked a constitutional crisis, which resulted in the Parliament Act 1911.

Permanent committees or sessional committees are appointed for the duration of a parliamentary session in the House of Lords to examine broad policy areas. They are reappointed at the beginning of a new session.

The most senior civil servant in a UK government department. They act as the principal policy adviser to the secretary of state and are personally designated as the accounting officer, making them accountable to parliament for the department’s public spending. They are career civil servants who serve successive governments.

A mechanism in the Northern Ireland Assembly under which 30 members (MLAs) can require that a specific measure be passed on a cross-community basis rather than a simple majority.

A cross-party select committee of 11 MPs that oversees the e-petitions system. They review petitions that hit the 100,000-signature threshold and decide whether to schedule them for a debate in Westminster Hall.

A Welsh nationalist, centre-left party founded in 1925 that advocates Welsh independence. Originally focused on protecting the Welsh language and culture, it won its first Westminster seat in 1966. In 2026 it became the largest party in the Senedd, and its leader, Rhun ap Iorwerth, became the first non-Labour first minister of Wales, heading a minority government.

The most effective route for a private members’ bill (PMB). At the start of a session, backbenchers enter a ballot; the 20 names drawn are given priority for the limited Friday debating time allocated to PMBs, with the first drawn having the highest chance of success.

A formal appeal to the speaker of the House of Commons from an MP who believes that the rules, procedures or conventions of the House have been breached. It is a key mechanism to ensure that the established rules of debate and conduct are being followed correctly.

An individual who holds a “prominent public function” (such as an MP, minister or senior judge) and is therefore considered to present a higher risk for potential involvement in bribery and corruption. The regime is designed to combat the risk of financial crime and corruption.

A standard opinion poll surveys a sample of between 1,000 and 2,000 people. Polling companies then adjust this raw data for demographic factors like age, gender, social class and past voting behaviour to ensure the sample accurately reflects the country at large.

A statutory check on the prerogative power to ratify foreign treaties. Put into statute by the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010, it requires a 21-day period to give parliament the opportunity to scrutinise and potentially delay a treaty.

The prime minister’s power to appoint, dismiss and reshuffle ministers, and to recommend people for peerages, honours and many senior public appointments. It is a key source of prime ministerial authority. It also includes the ability to grant life peerages to appoint outside experts or former politicians to the government.

The most common method for introducing all government bills and most private members’ bills (PMBs). The sponsoring member hands the bill in “dummy form” to the clerk of the House, who reads out its short title. A future date is named for second reading, and the bill cannot be discussed or amended. PMBs introduced this way go to the back of the legislative queue and have little chance of becoming law.

The principal public representative of the party and the chair of the federal board, elected every three years. Distinct from the political leader, the president focuses on the party’s strategic direction, administration and internal governance. The role acts as the “voice of party members” and involves overseeing the implementation of national party strategy.

The impartial chair of the Scottish Parliament, elected by secret ballot of MSPs. The presiding officer chairs debates, holds a casting vote, represents the parliament and chairs the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body, which provides the parliament’s staff and services. On election, the presiding officer stops taking part in party politics.

An organised group of people united in the promotion of a common cause or interest. They are so-called because of their role in applying “pressure” on government, public opinion and other institutions to advance their political and/or policy objectives.

The term used to describe the main laws passed by the legislative bodies of the UK. This type of legislation is also referred to as “statutes” or “statute law”.

The head of His Majesty’s Government. The holder of the office is the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons, usually the leader of its largest party. The prime minister leads the government, chairs the cabinet, appoints and dismisses ministers and has overall responsibility for government policy.

A senior civil servant responsible for communicating the official position of the government to the media. The role serves as a link between the prime minister’s office and the accredited political journalists based in Westminster, known as the “Lobby”.

The main event of the parliamentary week. It is a 30-minute session held in the House of Commons every Wednesday at 12 noon, where the prime minister answers questions from MPs from all sides of the House, serving as a unique blend of constitutional scrutiny and political theatre.

A Latin phrase meaning “first among equals”, used to describe the prime minister’s position within the cabinet. It signifies that while they are officially part of a collective decision-making body, they act as the ultimate decision-making force, setting the agenda and serving as the final arbiter in disputes.

The Green Party’s original leadership structure, which avoided a single figurehead in favour of multiple representatives (one male, one female) to reflect decentralist values. This was replaced by a formal leader and deputy leader model following a 2007 internal referendum to improve media communication and electoral effectiveness.

A core concept of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement affirming that Northern Ireland remains part of the UK for as long as a majority of its people wish. While acknowledging the legitimacy of the aspiration for a United Ireland, it ensures that constitutional status can only change if a majority of people in Northern Ireland vote for it.

Bills promoted by organisations outside parliament, such as local authorities or companies, to give themselves specific legal powers that apply only to them. People affected can petition against them. They are rare.

A public bill introduced by an MP or peer who is not a government minister. While rarely becoming law due to limited parliamentary time, they can raise the profile of specific issues or proposed reforms. So-called “ballot bills”, which emerge from the PMB ballot, have the highest chance of success.

A procedure giving members of the House of Lords the opportunity to raise urgent matters on any sitting day. They are submitted in writing to the lord speaker, who has the authority to decide if the issue is of sufficient urgency and importance to justify an immediate reply from the government.

Formally, the privy council is a body of advisers to the monarch of the United Kingdom. In its modern form, the privy council’s main function is to give legal effect to decisions made by the government.

A constitutional convention stemming from the privy council oath of secrecy. It allows the government to share highly classified intelligence with opposition leaders on the strict understanding that the information cannot be disclosed publicly.

A ground for judicial review where the decision-making process was unfair. This can happen if a public body fails to follow the correct procedures set out in law or if the “rules of natural justice” have not been adhered to.

A motion, usually passed straight after a bill’s second reading, setting out a timetable for the bill’s remaining commons stages, including deadlines for committee stage and for report and third reading. Programme motions are now routine for government bills.

A category of electoral systems where a party’s share of seats closely reflects its share of the total votes cast. Proponents argue this ensures a fairer translation of votes into seats compared to majoritarian systems like first past the post (FPTP), which often under-represent smaller parties with geographically spread support. Critics argue PR weakens the link between MPs and constituencies and makes coalitions more likely, giving smaller parties disproportionate influence.

The formal ending of a parliamentary session, carried out by the monarch on the government’s advice. Prorogation brings all parliamentary business to an end. Legislation is not carried over unless specific provision is made.

Legislation that allows certain budget resolutions (such as changes to alcohol or tobacco duties) to take provisional legal effect immediately on budget day, before the Finance Bill is fully passed.

A system introduced following a 2018 pairing controversy, allowing absent MPs to have their vote cast by a nominated colleague. Initially for new parents, it now covers serious long-term illness, baby loss or risk-based exclusion from the parliamentary estate.

A temporary cross-party group of MPs established to scrutinise a specific bill during its “committee stage” following second reading. They conduct clause-by-clause scrutiny of a bill and may take written and oral evidence from experts.

The main type of primary legislation, dealing with matters of public policy that affect the general population. They include both government bills (representing the ruling party’s agenda) and private members’ bills (introduced by backbenchers).

The timeframe immediately before an election during which strict rules apply to the communications and activities of central government, local authorities and the civil service to maintain impartiality.

Margaret Thatcher’s September 1981 reshuffle, in which she sacked or moved moderate Conservative ministers (the “wets”) who opposed her monetarist economic policies. She replaced them with supporters (the “dries”), strengthening her control over the cabinet and helping to consolidate her authority in the long-term.

The core strategic group, consisting of four members, that took key decisions in the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition. Balanced two-to-two between the parties, it settled disputes and often agreed policy before they reached cabinet.

A public body that is not a government department but for which government ministers are ultimately accountable to parliament. The term “Quango”, which stands for “quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation”, is often used pejoratively by critics. The official term used by the UK government is “arm’s-length body” (ALB).

A unanimous supreme court ruling in November 2023 declaring the government’s policy of sending asylum seekers to Rwanda unlawful. The court concluded there were substantial grounds to believe asylum seekers faced a real risk of refoulement – being improperly returned to countries where they face persecution. Parliament responded with the Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Act 2024, which declared Rwanda a safe country. The scheme was scrapped by the incoming Labour government in 2024.

A landmark supreme court ruling that the government could not use the royal prerogative to trigger Article 50 and begin the UK’s withdrawal from the EU. The court held that because an act of parliament (European Communities Act 1972) established EU law in the UK, only a new act of parliament could authorise its removal. The court also held that the Sewel convention is not legally enforceable, so devolved legislatures had no legal veto.

The landmark supreme court ruling that declared Boris Johnson’s advice to Queen Elizabeth II in 2019 to prorogue (suspend) parliament unlawful, “void and of no effect”. It established that prerogative powers cannot be used to prevent parliament from carrying out its legislative functions, appealing to the principle of parliamentary sovereignty.

An amendment to the main motion at second reading that sets out specific reasons for opposing the principles behind a bill. If tabled by the opposition or another group of MPs, the House votes on this amendment first; if passed, it prevents the bill from progressing any further in the legislative process.

Legislation that introduced a process for constituents to remove their MP in specific circumstances of serious misconduct. The act created a mechanism for a recall petition, which, if successful, vacates the relevant MP’s seat and triggers a by-election.

The process by which parliament is brought back to sit at short notice during a recess to address an urgent national or international emergency. It is granted by the speaker at the government’s request.

A formal mechanism allowing constituents to remove their MP between general elections. If triggered by specific instances of serious misconduct, eligible voters have six weeks to sign it; if 10% do so, the seat is vacated and a by-election is called.

A period when the House of Commons and the House of Lords are not sitting. These breaks in the parliamentary calendar are not holidays; they are periods that allow MPs and their counterparts in the House of Lords, peers, to carry out their duties away from Westminster.

A direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote on a particular proposal. In the UK, referendums are normally advisory in law, since parliament remains sovereign, but their results are treated as politically binding. They have been used mainly for major constitutional questions, including EEC membership (1975), devolution (1979, 1997, 2011), the Good Friday Agreement (1998), the voting system (2011), Scottish independence (2014) and EU membership (2016).

A right-wing populist political party originally founded as the Brexit Party in 2018. Led by Nigel Farage, it has evolved from a single-issue eurosceptic entity into an insurgent force, securing significant parliamentary and local representation by heavily squeezing the traditional Conservative vote. It campaigns on freezing non-essential immigration, sweeping tax cuts and culturally conservative policies.

The official public record of any financial interests held by an MP (such as material benefits and payments in kind or gifts) that could reasonably be thought to influence their actions or words as a politician.

Stage in a bill’s legislative journey that takes place on the floor of the main chamber after committee stage and before third reading. It provides an opportunity for all MPs (not just those on the public bill committee) to debate the detailed text, consider the bill as amended by the committee and propose and potentially vote on further amendments. It is so named because the House is formally considering the bill as reported from the committee that examined it.

A right-wing political party in the United Kingdom, led by Rupert Lowe. Originally launched as a pressure group, Lowe announced its transition to a registered political party in February 2026. The party serves as an electoral challenger to Reform UK on the right, positioning itself as a harder-line alternative. Commentators, noting the party’s strict anti-immigration focus, have referred to Restore as “far-right”.

The movement of people between roles in government, including as ministers, senior civil servants or special advisers, and jobs in the private sector, particularly lobbying and consultancy.

The final step required for any parliamentary bill to become law. It is the formal agreement of the monarch to a bill that has been passed by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. This is a formality that is never refused by long-established convention.

An elaborate ceremony for granting royal assent that takes place at the end of a parliamentary session (prorogation). It occurs in the House of Lords involving royal commissioners, during which the short title of each bill is read. A clerk pronounces a traditional Norman French phrase to signify agreement.

The routine process used for the vast majority of bills. After the monarch signs a commission, the speakers of both the House of Commons and House of Lords formally notify their respective chambers. Once both houses are notified, the bill is duly enacted as an act of parliament. Introduced by the Royal Assent Act 1967.

The residue of powers once exercised personally by the monarch, now almost entirely exercised by government ministers. They form a key element of the UK’s uncodified constitution, providing the legal basis for a range of executive actions. These include the power to dissolve parliament and declare war, though they are increasingly limited by statute law, conventions and judicial oversight.

Constituencies under the first past the post (FPTP) system where the same political party almost always wins, meaning votes cast for losing candidates or surplus votes for the winner technically have no impact on the overall outcome.

A constitutional convention governing the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Its core principle is that the unelected House of Lords will not vote down a government bill at second or third reading if it seeks to implement a commitment from the governing party’s election manifesto. It ensures the Lords does not obstruct a government with an electoral mandate.

Legislation that declared the Scottish Parliament a permanent part of the UK constitution and placed the Sewel convention on a legislative footing. It also substantially extended Holyrood’s powers, enabling it to set income tax rates and band thresholds.

A fully independent political party since 1990 that maintains its own membership, constitution and policy-making processes. It supports Scottish independence and entered a power-sharing deal with the Scottish National Party (SNP) known as the Bute House Agreement which saw Green MSPs appointed as government ministers (2021-2024).

The political movement for Scotland to leave the UK and become a sovereign state, ending the entity created by the Acts of Union 1707. Supporters argue Scotland should govern itself and make different political choices from Westminster; opponents point to economic risks, questions over currency, borders and EU membership and the benefits of UK-wide institutions. After the 2014 referendum, the Supreme Court ruled in 2022 that the Scottish Parliament cannot legislate for a referendum without Westminster’s consent.

A vote on whether Scotland should be an independent country, resulting in a 55.3% ‘No’ victory for the ‘Better Together’ campaign. It is notable for an exceptionally high voter turnout (84.6%), the enfranchisement of 16- and 17-year-olds and the subsequent resignation of first minister Alex Salmond.

A centre-left, social democratic political party that currently forms the Scottish Government. Its primary and overriding political objective is achieving Scottish independence, which involves ending the 1707 Act of Union and establishing Scotland as a sovereign state.

The Scottish Parliament, often referred to by its location as “Holyrood”, is the devolved legislature for Scotland, established in 1999. It represents Scottish interests, makes laws on devolved matters (such as health and education), can set rates of income tax and scrutinises the Scottish Government. It consists of 129 members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs), elected every five years.

Small, cross-party groups of members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) that perform the detailed work of the parliament. Normally made up of between five and 15 MSPs, they are the primary engine for scrutinising the Scottish Government’s spending and policy, conducting inquiries and examining proposed legislation (bills) during stages one and two of the legislative process.

A period where UK and Scottish law officers check passed bills to ensure they do not infringe on “reserved” matters, with potential referral to the supreme court. If cleared, and not blocked by a UK government section 35 order, the bill receives formal approval from the monarch.

The phase focusing on a bill’s general principles. A “lead” parliamentary committee holds an inquiry, takes evidence from experts and the public and publishes a report. The Scottish Parliament then debates this report in the main chamber and votes on whether to agree to the bill’s general principles.

The final consideration of a bill by the whole Scottish Parliament in the main chamber. It involves a final opportunity for MSPs to vote on amendments selected by the presiding officer, immediately followed by a decisive debate and vote on whether to pass the bill as a whole.

A phase in the Scottish legislative process where a bill is referred back to a committee. Any MSP can propose and speak to amendments, but only committee members can vote on them. If amended, the bill is republished before returning to the main chamber.

The period before formal parliamentary stages begin where the presiding officer assesses if a public bill falls within the Scottish Parliament’s legislative competence, however a negative assessment does not halt introduction. The bill is also submitted with various accompanying documents depending on its type.

An electoral pact formed in 1981 between the historic Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP), a breakaway group from Labour. The Alliance sought to break the mould of British politics but failed to secure a parliamentary breakthrough in 1983 and 1987, leading to the formal merger of the two parties in 1988.

The first opportunity for parliamentarians to debate the main principles and general merits of a proposed law. Opened by a minister and followed by opposition and backbench responses, the House votes to approve the bill’s principles before it proceeds to the committee stage. No amendments to the text can be made at this stage.

A form of law, most commonly a statutory instrument (SI), made by a government minister under powers delegated to them by a primary act of parliament. It is used to fill in necessary details, technical rules and practical measures required to make the broader primary legislation work.

The most senior rank of government ministers. Appointed by the prime minister to head major departments (like the Home Office or Treasury), they sit in the cabinet.

A legal mechanism which is made under the Scotland Act 1998. It can be used to increase or restrict the Scottish Parliament’s legislative authority. It was used ahead of the 2014 referendum to temporarily devolve the power to hold a legally binding vote on independence from the UK parliament in Westminster to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood.

A power under the Scotland Act 1998 allowing the secretary of state for Scotland to block a Scottish Parliament bill from receiving royal assent if it is deemed incompatible with international obligations, defence interests or adversely affects the law on reserved matters.

The House of Lords is a self-regulating chamber, meaning the lord speaker has no power to call members to order for disruptive behaviour, decide who speaks next if two members rise at the same time or select which amendments to legislation are debated. The leader of the House of Lords may be called upon to advise on procedure and assist when disputes arise.

Small, cross-party groups of Members of the Senedd (MSs) that perform the detailed work of the parliament. They are the primary engine for scrutinising the Welsh Government’s spending and policy, conducting inquiries and examining proposed legislation (bills) during stages one and two of the legislative process. Under Senedd rules, every government department must be covered by a committee.

A major reform act that increased the Senedd’s size from 60 to 96 members and created 16 six-member constituencies. It replaced the old additional member system (AMS) for electing MSs with closed list proportional representation, reduced the electoral term to four years and increased the limit on the number of Welsh ministers.

The devolved legislature for Wales, established in 1999. It represents Welsh interests, makes laws on devolved matters (eg health, education), agrees on Welsh taxes and scrutinises the Welsh Government. As of 2026, it consists of 96 members (MSs).

The period (up to four-weeks) after a bill passes stage four. UK and Welsh law officers can refer the bill to the supreme court to check if it is within devolved powers, and the secretary of state for Wales can block it via a section 114 order. If no challenges are made, the monarch grants royal assent, making it an Act of Senedd Cymru.

The final consideration of a bill in plenary (the full Senedd chamber). MSs hold a final vote to either pass or reject the complete text of the bill. For certain constitutional bills (like those affecting Senedd size), a two-thirds “super-majority” is required.

The first phase of a bill’s passage where a Senedd committee examines the general principles of the proposed law. After taking evidence and consulting, the committee reports back. The full Senedd must then vote to approve these principles before the bill can proceed.

A phase conducted in plenary (the full Senedd chamber) where all MSs can consider further detailed amendments to the bill. The presiding officer (Llywydd) determines which amendments will be selected for debate and vote.

The stage where a Senedd committee performs detailed, line-by-line scrutiny of a bill. Committee members can propose, debate and vote on amendments to the text. Only members of that specific committee have the power to vote on changes at this stage.

A senior official of the House of Commons responsible for maintaining order and security in the commons chamber. The role is one of the oldest in parliament, dating back to at least the 15th century. The most visible duty of the serjeant at arms is carrying the commons ceremonial mace during the speaker’s daily procession into the chamber.

A constitutional principle stating that the UK parliament will not normally legislate on devolved matters without the consent of the relevant devolved institution. The supreme court ruled in 2017 that this remains a political constraint rather than a legally enforceable rule.

A team of senior spokespeople from the official opposition (usually the second-largest party in the commons) who “mirror” the government’s cabinet. They scrutinise specific departments and present alternative policies as a “government-in-waiting”.

State funding provided to opposition parties to assist them in carrying out their parliamentary duties. It is calculated using a formula based on the number of seats and votes won at the previous general election.

MPs submit their proposed oral questions to a specific department in advance. To ensure fairness, these questions are then randomly ordered by a computerised ballot known as the “shuffle”. The final list is published in the parliamentary order paper for the day.

A proportional, preferential electoral system utilising multi-member constituencies. Voters rank candidates numerically. To secure election, candidates must achieve a mathematically determined quota; surplus votes or votes from eliminated candidates are redistributed according to voters’ preferences. Used in the Northern Ireland Assembly and Scottish local elections.

An all-island democratic socialist and Irish republican party founded in 1905 that seeks the establishment of a united Irish republic. It is the only major party to contest elections in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. It maintains a policy of abstentionism at Westminster, refusing to recognise the legitimacy of the parliament or swear an oath of allegiance to the British monarch.

The extended debate held on the last sitting day before the summer recess, allowing MPs to raise a wide variety of local topics. Its name honours the late Conservative MP Sir David Amess, who was murdered while conducting a constituency surgery in 2021. Amess was renowned for raising numerous constituency issues in rapid succession during these annual sessions.

While Fridays are normally reserved for MPs to work in their constituencies, the House sits on approximately 13 Fridays per session. These sitting days are allocated exclusively for the consideration of backbench private members’ bills (PMBs).

A criticism levelled at digital political engagement, such as signing parliamentary e-petitions. It argues that these actions require minimal effort or commitment, providing participants with the illusion of meaningful democratic involvement while rarely leading to substantive policy change or real-world political organisation.

The tradition, observed during the state opening of parliament, of shutting the door of the commons chamber in black rod’s face before they can summon MPs to hear the king’s speech. It recalls Charles I’s attempt to arrest five MPs in the chamber in 1642 and symbolises the commons’ independence from the Crown.

A social democratic and nationalist party in Northern Ireland founded in 1970 committed to achieving a United Ireland through exclusively peaceful and constitutional means. A leading architect of the Good Friday Agreement, it maintains links with the UK Labour Party and takes up its seats at Westminster, unlike Sinn Féin.

A centrist political party founded in 1981 by four senior Labour moderates (the Gang of Four) as a response to the Labour Party’s perceived shift to the left. It championed a mixed economy, European integration and constitutional reform. After entering an electoral Alliance with the Liberals, the majority of the party merged with them in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats.

A tradition in the Liberal Democrats that generally embraces an active state as a tool for equalising opportunity and addressing inequality. It draws inspiration from the 1928 Yellow Book, the work of William Beveridge and John Maynard Keynes, and the Social Democratic Party inheritance, advocating for government action to tackle major challenges.

The ability to influence other nations through cultural appeal, diplomatic networks and political institutions rather than “hard” coercive pressure. For example, proponents argue that the global profile, historic ties and cultural influence of the royal family are assets to the UK’s soft power.

Acts of parliament, the royal prerogative, judicial precedent (common law), constitutional conventions, authoritative works, assimilated EU law and historic charters.

A 1998 constitutional safeguard requiring that any substantial proposal affecting the party’s independence, such as a coalition, must be approved by 75% of both Liberal Democrat MPs and the federal executive, or by a two-thirds majority at a special party conference. It was designed to prevent leaders from bypassing membership consent.

A single Treasury grant that funds the official expenditure of the monarchy. It is calculated as a percentage of the Crown Estate’s profits from two years prior and covers both core activities and major projects, such as the reservicing of official residences.

The constitutional convention dictating how the speaker votes in the extremely rare event of a tie. The speaker should vote to allow further discussion where possible; if no further discussion is possible, they must vote against the motion so as not to create a majority where one does not exist.

MP who impartially presides over debates, serves as the guardian of the House’s rules and ensures proceedings are orderly. Elected at the start of each parliament, they must immediately renounce party affiliation. They do not vote, except to cast a deciding vote in the rare event of a tie, guided by established conventions. Their seat is not contested by major parties in general elections.

Ad-hoc committees in the House of Lords set up for a single parliamentary session to investigate a topical issue. Some examples include committees on home-based working and AI in weapon systems. These committees conduct detailed investigations, taking oral and written evidence from numerous organisations and individuals, and cease to exist once they have published their final report and findings.

An agreement reached in October 2006 between the British and Irish governments and the Northern Ireland parties, which led to the restoration of devolution in May 2007 after a five-year suspension. It secured DUP participation in power-sharing and Sinn Féin’s support for the Police Service of Northern Ireland. Ian Paisley became first minister with Sinn Féin’s Martin McGuinness as deputy first minister.

The ceremonial event marking the formal start of the parliamentary session, bringing together the monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The ceremony is the occasion for the speech from the throne (king’s speech/queen’s speech), which announces the government’s legislative agenda for the new parliamentary session.

The ancient stone upon which Scottish monarchs were crowned, removed by Edward I in 1296. In a famous act of nationalist defiance in 1950, four Scottish students stole it from Westminster Abbey, bringing significant publicity to the home rule movement before it was recovered.

A mechanism introduced by the 2023 Windsor framework allowing 30 MLAs from at least two parties to object to the application of new or amended EU rules in Northern Ireland in “exceptional circumstances”.

An independent investigation into the 2015 polling “miss”. It concluded the industry failed primarily due to unrepresentative sampling (recruiting too many Labour supporters), rejecting the so-called “shy Tory” theory and identifying a “herding” phenomenon among pollsters.

An agreed framework that established a devolved power-sharing assembly in Northern Ireland and a Council of Ireland to facilitate cross-border matters with the Republic. An executive featuring moderate unionists and nationalists took office in 1974, but it collapsed within months due to a general strike by the loyalist Ulster Workers’ Council, who rejected the agreement’s so-called “Dublin dimension”.

An unscripted follow-up question asked by an MP after a minister has answered their initial, pre-tabled question. It must relate to the original topic but is often more pointed and unpredictable since it is not printed on the order paper in advance.

A majoritarian system where voters express a first and second preference from a list of candidates. If no candidate receives more than 50% of the first preference votes, all but the top two candidates are eliminated, and the second-preference votes of the eliminated candidates are redistributed to the top two. The candidate with the most votes at the end of this process wins. Formerly used for English mayoralties.

The pragmatic act of casting a vote for a candidate who is not the voter’s first preference to prevent an even less desirable candidate from winning. It involves choosing the “lesser evil” to block the “greater evil” under the first past the post (FPTP) system.

A parliamentary tactic used to kill a private member’s bill (PMB) where an opposing MP may make an exceptionally long speech on a preceding bill to use up all available debating time on a sitting Friday, preventing a vote from taking place before the session ends.

Issued by Robert Peel in 1834, this is regarded as the foundational document of the modern Conservative party. Conceived as a response to the Great Reform Act of 1832, it was an appeal to the enfranchised property-owning middle classes. It warned against a “perpetual vortex of agitation”.

Live broadcast events introduced to the UK in 2010 where political party leaders are questioned during a general election campaign. While they provide direct head-to-head engagement, their actual impact in altering election outcomes remains highly contested.

MPs (usually whips) appointed to physically count the members as they exit the lobbies during a division. Two tellers are required for each side to record a vote; they then formally announce the final numbers to the speaker.

An informal agreement made between Tony Blair and Gordon Brown in the 1994 Labour leadership election. The agreement was famously finalised at a London restaurant (Granita). It involved Brown choosing not to stand in the contest against Blair, with the reported understanding that Blair would later hand over the premiership to Brown. This informal bargain helped shape their strained relationship during the New Labour years.

A famous critical description of the Labour Party manifesto for the 1983 general election. Produced during Michael Foot’s leadership, it was a mostly unrestrained statement of the contemporary left’s demands, featuring commitments to unilateral nuclear disarmament, withdrawal from the European Economic Community, the abolition of the House of Lords, higher personal taxation for the rich and widespread nationalisation.

A non-governmental organisation that conducts research and advocacy on public policy issues. Their primary purpose is to influence public policy and political debate by introducing new ideas and analysis. They range from organisations with a clear ideological viewpoint to specialist, impartial bodies whose influence is based on their data-driven research.

The final debate on a bill’s general principles and contents as a whole, following report stage. No further amendments to the text can be made and the debate is limited to what is actually in the bill; it is not a wide-ranging debate like the one at second reading.

The final stage in the Lords, which usually takes place on a separate day from the report stage. Unlike the commons, peers can make further amendments, but these are generally restricted to “tidying up” drafting or clarifying points rather than introducing major new changes.

The strictest parliamentary instruction from party leadership, underlined three times. It signals that attendance and voting in line with the party’s position is strictly obligatory; defying it can result in disciplinary action.

A 15-minute period at the end of most departmental question sessions where MPs can ask brief, unscripted questions on any issue within the department’s remit. These are generally faster-paced and provide a direct route for backbench scrutiny.

A right-wing, unionist political party in Northern Ireland. Founded in 2007, it is defined by its staunch opposition to the Belfast/Good Friday Agreement (1998) and to power-sharing with nationalist parties generally. The party represents the most hard-line expression of unionism among the region’s elected parties.

A party tendency that emphasises established institutions, social order – as well as socially conservative stances on cultural issues, national identity, law and order and family values. Members of this group have historically opposed modernising social reforms, such as the Cameron government’s same-sex marriage legislation and efforts to allow unmarried couples to adopt children.

An instruction that attendance in parliament is required unless a prior arrangement has been made.

A political framework where two major parties (traditionally Conservative and Labour in Britain) dominate the electoral landscape, capturing the vast majority of votes and alternating in single-party government.

A local government structure where functions are split between two levels. An upper-tier county council handles wide-scope services like education, social care and transport, while several lower-tier district, borough or city councils manage more local services like housing and waste collection.

The risk that direct democracy can allow the rights, interests or protections of minority groups to be overridden by a simple majority vote.

The voting age for UK general elections is currently 18, lowered from 21 in 1969. In Scotland and Wales, 16- and 17-year-olds can already vote in devolved and local elections. The Representation of the People Bill, introduced in February 2026, would lower the voting age to 16 for UK parliamentary elections.

A eurosceptic, right-wing populist party founded in 1993 that achieved its electoral peak at the 2014 European Parliament elections under Nigel Farage’s leadership. In 2015 it won 12.6% of the vote, nearly four million votes, but only one seat. Its pressure on the Conservatives contributed to David Cameron’s decision to hold the 2016 EU referendum. After the referendum it declined sharply amid internal splits, and its support largely transferred to the Brexit Party and Reform UK.

A unionist political party in Northern Ireland. It is the oldest and was historically the most dominant unionist party, governing Northern Ireland continuously from 1921 until 1972. The party’s core ideology is based on civic unionism, promoting Northern Ireland as an integral part of the UK for the benefit of all its citizens. The UUP’s electoral influence has diminished since the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, an accord it was instrumental in creating.

A mechanism allowing anyone to request a review of a Crown Court sentence. If the attorney general agrees it falls outside the reasonable range a judge should consider, they can refer it to the court of appeal to be increased or quashed.

A single-tier local government body responsible for all local services in its area, combining the functions of county and district councils. Many large towns, cities, London boroughs, metropolitan districts and increasingly reorganised former two-tier counties operate under this model.

A question an MP applies to ask on a matter of pressing importance, which the speaker can grant at short notice, requiring a minister to come to the chamber that day and answer. The minister makes a short statement and then takes questions from MPs. Their use expanded greatly after 2009 under speaker John Bercow.

The informal negotiation process between the leader of the House, the government’s chief whip and their opposition counterparts to agree on the timetabling of debates and legislation.

A requirement, introduced by the Elections Act 2022 and first used in May 2023, for voters to show photographic identification at polling stations. The government argued it would prevent personation, though recorded cases of in-person fraud were very rare. At the 2024 general election the Electoral Commission recorded around 50,000 people initially turned away, of whom about 16,000 did not return, and estimated around 750,000 people lacked accepted ID.

A joint public pledge made in the final days of the 2014 referendum campaign by the leaders of the Conservative, Labour and Liberal Democrat parties. They promised the swift delivery of substantial new devolved powers to the Scottish parliament if voters rejected independence.

An incident in June 2018 in which Conservative MP Sir Christopher Chope blocked a private member’s bill to criminalise “upskirting”, sponsored by Liberal Democrat MP Wera Hobhouse, by objecting when it was called for second reading. Chope said he supported the ban but opposed bills passing without debate. The resulting public and cross-party backlash led the government to adopt the measure, which became the Voyeurism (Offences) Act 2019.

Votes that do not contribute to electing anyone: those cast for losing candidates, and votes for the winner beyond the number needed to win. Under first past the post (FPTP), where a candidate needs only a plurality to win, critics argue this depresses turnout and encourages tactical voting.

Fruit-based metaphors used to describe internal Green Party factions. “Watermelons” (green outside, red inside) represent the eco-socialist left who prioritise social justice and structural reform. “Mangoes” (green outside, orange inside) represent a more centrist, Liberal Democrat-facing wing focused on conventional environmentalism.

Resolutions of the House of Commons authorising taxation or other charges on the public. They arise in two contexts. After the budget statement, the chancellor moves ways and means motions covering the proposed tax changes, which form the basis of the budget debate. Additionally, any bill that imposes a new or increased tax or charge requires its own ways and means resolution, usually taken immediately after second reading. New spending is authorised separately by a money resolution.

The compromise during the passage of the 1999 House of Lords Act, negotiated between the government and Viscount Cranborne. It allowed 92 hereditary peers to remain in the House as a transitional arrangement. The amendment was named after Lord Weatherill, the convenor of the independent crossbench peers, who helped facilitate the agreement.

A post-legislative vote where Welsh voters decisively rejected the creation of a devolved assembly by a margin of four to one. Damaged by deep divisions within the Labour Party and fears of unnecessary bureaucracy, the result was an absolute rejection, with only 20.3% voting in favour on a 58.8% turnout.

A narrow electoral victory for the Yes for Wales campaign, which secured a 50.3% majority to establish a national assembly. This vote effectively reversed the 1979 result and led to the Government of Wales Act 1998, though the initial settlement was more limited than the tax-raising powers granted to Scotland.

A political movement that has historically existed at the margins of Welsh politics. Formally adopted as a policy by Plaid Cymru in 2003, it has generated less popular support than its counterparts in Scotland or Ireland.

A constitutional dilemma highlighting the imbalance of voting rights under devolution. It refers to the scenario where MPs from devolved nations can vote on legislation affecting only England in the House of Commons, while English MPs cannot vote on devolved matters.

Designed to give backbench MPs the opportunity to discuss topics that would not otherwise be heard in the main chamber. These include local constituency matters, the reports of select committees and public e-petitions. Held in the Grand Committee Room, located off the main Westminster Hall. Unlike the commons chamber, it has a U-shaped seating arrangement.

The weekly instruction or circular sent out by whips to their MPs. It informs members of the forthcoming parliamentary business and underlines how important it is for them to attend and vote based on a three-point grading scale.

MPs or peers in the House of Lords who are appointed by their political party to enforce party discipline and manage its contribution to the parliamentary schedule. The name originates from the 18th century hunting term “whipper-in” – a person responsible for preventing hounds from straying from the pack.

An official government policy document that sets out firm and detailed proposals for future legislation. It represents the government’s settled position on a policy issue and often forms the direct basis for a new bill to be introduced to parliament.

The large, armless, red-covered seat on which the lord speaker sits in the House of Lords chamber; before 2006 it was occupied by the lord chancellor. Dating from the 14th century, it symbolises the historic importance of the wool trade to England’s economy.

A minor party founded in 2019 led by George Galloway that combines socialist economics with social conservatism. It is economically radical, critiquing Nato and imperialist wars while defending the achievements of states like the USSR and Cuba. It focuses heavily on Palestinian rights and anti-Zionism.

A financial limit (currently £850) that allows a government department to refuse to answer a written question if sourcing and compiling the requested information would be excessively expensive.

A package of 2010 reforms, triggered by the 2009 expenses scandal, designed to rebalance power from the executive to parliament. Key changes included the establishment of the backbench business committee and the requirement that select committee chairs be elected by a secret ballot of the whole House, giving them a personal mandate independent of party whips.

A single, codified document setting out the fundamental laws and principles by which a state is governed. It defines government institutions, outlines their powers and establishes the relationship between the state and its citizens. The UK is unusual among major democratic nations for lacking such a document.

Announcements made by ministers in writing rather than in person, used for matters that need to be on the formal record, sometimes to meet a legal requirement, but that do not warrant a full oral statement. They are published on the parliamentary website and in Hansard, the official report of parliamentary proceedings, usually on the morning of a sitting day.

Questions submitted by MPs and peers to government ministers that receive a written, rather than an oral, answer. They allow parliamentarians to ask government ministers for information on the work, policy and activities of government departments.

A left-wing, socialist political party officially registered in September 2025. The party operates under a collective leadership structure but was co-founded by former Labour MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Zarah Sultana – principally to mobilise disaffected progressive voters. Since its formation, its development has been characterised by factionalism and internal disputes.